I’m sorry this happened to you. Kudos to that college for giving you another chance. I see this as a case of a teacher “damning with faint praise”.
HS teachers know what is expected in a LOR. By sending this one, which they know you will never see and probably didn’t expect you to ever get any feedback about, the teacher IMO acted deliberately. Some teachers write ineffective standard-length LORs that they do little to convey the strengths and personality of the student to the adcom; writing a great letter is an art. But this teacher just threw you under the bus and figured you wouldn’t know. The last person in the world you should ask for a longer letter is this teacher.
Now maybe I’m wrong. It’s their first year teaching, or you go to a HS that seldom has students apply to colleges that need LOR, or some other circumstances apply. But I doubt it.
I’m guessing that when you asked this teacher to write a LOR you didn’t ask if they would be willing to write a strong letter on your behalf. It’s a bit uncomfortable for a HS student to ask a teacher such a direct question. It would have been better for the teacher to decline to write you a LOR, but, hey, you asked. Anyway, that’s water under the bridge. Something to keep in mind when asking for future LORs.
At this point having a good GC can make a world of difference. One that will contact the other colleges on your behalf, see if this teacher sent them the same LOR (which is likely if it was done thru the Common App) and ask if they’ll accept another letter. Trying to do this on your own is not advisable. You haven’t actually seen the letter and the other colleges may be reluctant to disclose anything about it for fear of violating confidentiality as they view it.